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HOW TO TEACH 

Primary Geography, 

Hints to Teachers, intended especially for those using 
FRYE'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY. 



By ALEX EVERETT FRYE. 




PRICE, 10 CENTS. 



GINN & COMPANY, Publishers, 

BOSTON, NEW YORK, AND CHICAGO. 



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HOW TO TEACH 

Primary Geography 



HINTS TO TEACHERS, INTENDED ESPECIALLY 

FOR THOSE USING 

FRYE'S PRIMAEY GEOGRAPHY 



ALEX EVERETT FRXB^;^-^^^^;,-^ 

/^'^ 1 AUG 30 1894 



I '> 







WA8W 



l>pff-X. 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 

GINX & COMPANY^ PUBLISHERS 

1894 



Copyright, 1894, 
By ALEX EVERETT FRYE. 



Gx^-^ 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 




INTRODUCTION.! 



To Teachers : — Read the Preface to Primary Geog- 
raphy ^ and then read the rest of the hook, in order 
to get the general plan of the luork. 
Study each lesson and make it yonr own. No 

book of methods can take the place of live thought. 
Find out what each lesson teaches. Make note of 

tlie facts that are to be brought out by the class. 
Think how best to throw light on these facts, — 

whether by pictures, by short stories or by crayon 

sketches. Above all know your school district. Be 

ever alert to direct pupils to objects that they can 

see or handle, — to hills, brooks, flowers, animals, 

people, etc. 

Let each lesson grow out of the one preceding it. 

Forge a chain of thought and each link will help to 

hold all others in memory. 

1 This little book, Hints to Teachers, has been prepared to 
meet a present demand. A larger Manual for Teachers will be 
issued later. 



IV INTRODUCTION. 

The work of making a definition is of great value 
to pupils, ivhen they have ideas to classify. Such 
work then tends to vivify and to relate ideas. 

Thoughtful teachers no longer treat pupils as if 
they were parrots to chatter words. The objects 
themselves are studied, and not their mere word- 
shells. 

Each lesson contains a few words that are new to 
pupils. Make a list of such words, and be sure that 
pupils learn the sense in which each word is used, 
and also how to pronounce it. 

Let overworked teachers bear in mind the fact that 
each minute spent in lyreparing a lesson saves ten 
ininutes in teaching it. 



\ 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 



1. Geography. 

Aivi. To interest pupils in tlie study of geography 
and to give an inkling of its meaning. 

Hi7its. Lead pupils to talk about parts of the 
earth that they have seen. Webs of spiders, and 
cocoons of moths, will give an idea of the work of 
silkworms. See Arahs and camels on pages QQ and 
67.-^ A sandy field will serve to illustrate desert; 
see also pages 49 and 52. Lead pupils to make a 
collection of spices; see page 80. Talk about the 
land of the Eskimo and seal; see pages 63 and 64. 
Plax, thistle or milkweed will help to teach cotton. 
See mtountains on page 13. 

Do not try to teach all the above in one lesson. 
Make two or three lessons of it. 

1 All number references are to pages and lessons in the 
-Primary Geography. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 



For pronunciation of names of places and of other 
words used in Primary Geography, see page 126. If 
pupils are to use the Word List they should be trained 
to pronounce the kei/ words. 



2. Hills and Valleys. 

Jijn. To lead pupils to look for hills and valleys 
near home. 

Hints. Running water shows which way land 
slants. 

How does a hill differ from a valley ? This question 
does not call for definitions. Pupils can discover that 
on a hill the sides meet at the top, while in a valley 
they meet at the bottom ; that a hill rises above the 
land near it, while a valley is lower than the land at 
its sides ; that water runs away from hills, but into 
valleys, etc. 

A few simple questions will help to bring out these 
and other thoughts. Do not expect too much at 
first. 

Pupils can draw hills and valleys on the black- 
boards. The sand tables, now in use in many schools, 
will help to illustrate this lesson. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 6 

3. Brooks and Rivers. 

Aim. To show tliat the speed of streams depends 
mainly on the slant (or slope) of the land, and to 
teach the names brook and river. 

Hints. Look for names in the picture. Eain feeds 
these brooks. The water flows swiftly in the Ta2)ids, 
because the land is steep. Under the bridge the land 
is nearly level. 

The brooks spread over the meadow, because there 
is a hollow in it. The water fills the hollow and 
makes a pond. 

See pictures of rivers on pages 10, 11, 14, 49. See 
brooks on pages 5 and 12. 



4. Slopes. 

Aim. To teach the value of slopes in nature. 

Hints. Talk about the slopes near your school, 
and then find pictures of slopes in this book. 

Pupils can discover that the pond in the meadow 
has already overflowed its banks. The water noAv 
runs off as fast as it flows in. In times of heavy 
rain the water may flow in faster than it can flow 



4 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

out. Then the pond will spread over more of the 
meadow. 

The text does not state that all ponds and lakes 
are made by brooks and rivers. 

What can pupils find in the picture ? 



5. Kinds of Soil. 

Awi. To lead pupils to observe the kinds of soil 
in their district. 

Hints. If pupils cannot find clay, let it drop from 
the lesson. Use any kinds of soil. Let the pupils 
know that the water poured on the soil shows what 
becomes of rain. 

Plants that decay help to form soil. If there is a 
grove near your school, the pupils may find leaf mold 
in it. 

The most important part of this lesson is that of 
interesting pupils in collecting kinds of soiL 



6. Work of Water. 

Aim. To show that water washes away soil. 
Hints. Try to teach this lesson on a rainy day. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 5 

Lead pupils to talk about the picture. Notice the 
clear sky above the clouds. The rain shows the 
direction in which the wind is blowing. The sun 
lights the tops of the clouds. 

Have pupils seen washouts? Have they seen 
roads cut by rain? 

Sand is too heavy for slow rills to move. Fine 
soil is lighter and is more easily carried. 



FooTxoTE. — Weather Record. 

Aiiti. To train pupils to observe the weather. 

This work lays a basis for the study of climate, 
and thus saves time in the higher grades. No part 
of the entire course is more important than the 
making of these records. 



7. Loose Soil. 

Ai7?i. To show why soil around plants should be 
kept loose. 

Hints. Let the pupils who try the experiments 
make a report to the class. 

Frost cracks and crumbles soil. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 



8. Rain in the Soil. 



Aim. To teach, the work of water in soil. 

Hints. Great interest can be aroused by trying 
some of the following experiments : 

Put a few kernels of corn into a bottle of water, 
and see how soon they will sprout. 

Sow a little grass or flax seed in a wet sponge. 

Put two or three potatoes in a damp cellar to sprout. 

Place a sweet potato in a glass of water and keep 
it in a warm room. It will make a beautiful vine. 

Hollow out a common potato, being careful not to 
injure the "eyes" ; fill it with wet soil, and plant in 
it an ivy or other vine. 

Take good care of the plants and they will tell a 
wonderful story. 

A box of ants will prove very instructive, and 
pupils will never grow weary of watching these little 
toilers. The box should have a glass cover. Put in 
a few crumbs of bread each day. 

9. How Soil Settles. 

Aim. To show the order in which soil or rocky 
matter settles in water. 



i 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 



The coarse and heavy matter settles first. The 
finest soil settles on to^). 



10. Work of the Brooks. 

Aim. To show how brooks carry soil. 

Hints. The rapids, of course, roll the pebbles. 
They wash down the sand, also. If there were no 
pond, the brook would carry the mud ^way and 
deposit it somewhere in still water. 



11. Mud Banks or Deltas. 

Aim. To show how deltas are made. 

Hints. The Greeks gave the name delta to the 
alluvial land at the mouth of the ^Nile, because this 
low land was shaped like the Greek letter (A) delta. 
The word channel is here used in the sense of a 
trough or cut in w^hich water flows. 

See maps of the Orinoco, Ganges and Xile deltas, 
on pages 32, 42 and 50. 

It may be a good plan to turn to the maps on page 
29, and show pupils the land and sea. ^o names for 
the parts of the sea are now needed. 



8 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

On page 44 there is a picture of a village built in 
the delta of the Ganges. 



12. Water and Heat. 

Aim. To show the origin of clouds. 

Hints. The word z?«por is often loosely used in 
the sense of cloud, fog or smoke. In this book the 
word is used in its true scientific meaning. Water 
vcqmr is water in its gaseous state and, as such, is 
invisible. 

As the water in the bottle is heated, observe the 
bubbling or boiling. A tiny cloud can be seen com- 
ing from the bottle. The deposit of moisture on the 
cold glass will prove that the cloud contains water. 

The cold window will show that the breath con- 
tains vapor of water. The water in the tin cup goes 
away as vapor in the air. 

Pupils will readily answer that the cloud from the 
kettle is made by heating water. They may discover 
that the hot water changes into vapor, and that the 
vapor changes into this cloud. 

Do not expect too much from pupils in this lesson. 
Let them see the experiments and tell what they see. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. V 

13. Forms of Water. 

Aim. To lead pupils to observe forms of water. 

Hints. This lesson should be made very simple. 
The question of dew-point, or of saturation, need not 
arise. 

Tyndall uses the name ivater-dust for cloud. 

Snow is now thought to be frozen vapor. When 
vapor freezes upon grass, stones, etc., it forms frost. 
True frost is not frozen dew. 

Just before water freezes, it expands. Water at 
the freezing point is, therefore, lighter than that 
which is slightly warmer. The colder water rises 
and freezes over the warmer. 

The meaning of the picture is plain. Just a[s the 
water in the kettle is changed by heat into vapor 
that forms a cloud, so the surface of the sea or of 
the lake is changed into vapor that, in turn, forms 
clouds. In all these cases, the vapor is in the clear 
space between the water and the cloud. 

14. Springs. 

Aim. To direct the thought to water coming out 
of the ground. 



10 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

Hints. In some places, as in swamps, the soil is 
filled with Avater; but in many places the water 
finds its way to springs, and thus flows out of the 
ground. 

Many brooks flow in dry seasons, because they are 
fed by springs. Eaindrops may travel for months 
in soil before reaching a spring. 

Note that a spring is not the '' place where a stream 
starts " ; it is the flowing water itself. The issue of 
water from the ground, and not the hole in the ground, 
is the spring. 

15. Sources of Streams. 

Aim. To show the various ways in which streams 
form. 

Hints. It does not seem best to discuss fully at 
this time the sources of streams shown in the pic- 
tures. Brief mention of each kind will suffice. The 
larger book of the series gives more details. 

One picture on page 7 shows the melting end of a 
glacier. See, also, the pictures on page 72. 

Pupils may need assistance in understanding the 
picture of the glacier. The entire white mass, look- 
ina: like a distant mountain chain, is the end of a 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 11 

great glacier. See tlie vvide cave in the end of this 
glacier. A huge block of ice has recently fallen. 

Page 53 shows other hot springs. 

What can pupils discover in the pictures on 
page 7? 

16. Where Brooks Flow. 

Aim. To teach that brooks follow slopes. 

Hints. Brooks cannot flow uphill, and so they 
wind around the high places in their path^. 

Every stream must flow downhill. 

The speed of a stream depends largely on the 
slope of the land over which it flows, as well as on 
the volume of water. 

Brooks spread out in low and level places. 



17. Systems and Basins. 

Aim. To prepare for the study of the basins and 
systems of the grand divisions. 

Hints. The lower picture on page 8 shows two 
brook basins, with their systems. 

Show pupils the Mississippi basin on pages 36 
and 105. 



IZ HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

A basin is land ; a system is water. A basin is 
made of slopes, while a system is made of streams. 
A system drains a basin. 

Point out the great systems and basins on the 
map, page 32. 



18. The Top of a Ridge. 

Ami. To prepare for the study of divides in the 
grand divisions. 

Hints. A sand table would greatly aid in imj^res- 
sing this lesson. If there is a ridge near the school, 
refer to it for all answers. 

When rain falls on the top of the ridge, part 
of the water doubtless flows into each valley. 

Each valley reaches to the top of this ridge. 



19. Divides. 

Aim. Same as in Lesson 18. 

Hints. If possible, direct pupils to a divide near 
the school. One minute with nature is worth a day 
with a map. 

Have you any pictures of divides ? 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 



13 



Lead pupils to trace some of the divides on the map, 
page 32. Make clear the fact that water partings 
may be on low land as well as on high ranges. 




Illustrati^t: Lessox. — It may prove helpful to 
teachers to study this report of a lesson. 

The aim is to teach how rain is gathered into 
streams. The teacher shows to the class a map like 
the one on this page, but made in actual relief on a 



14 HINTS TO TEACHEKS. 

sand table. This map is made of clay or of putty, 
and is covered with a thin layer of loam. 

Water is sprinkled upon the map, and tiny streams 
form in the low places. 

Teacher. — ^^ In what direction does every brook 
flow?" 

Fupils. — ^^It flows downhill." 

'•It follows the valley." 

"It flows from the high places to the low ones." 

''It runs down the steepest slopes." 

Teacher. — "In what part of a valley should you 
look for a brook ? " 

Pujyils.- — "We should look in the lowest ^^art." 

"A brook is just between the slopes." 

"It is where the slopes from both sides meet." 

Teacher. — "How much land does a brook drain?" 
Fupils. — "It drains a valley." 
"It drains all the land that slopes toward it." 
"Water flows from the sides of the hills into the 
brook." 

Teacher. — (Sprinkling water upon the middle 
ridge) "Into which valley does this water flow?" 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 15 

Piqnls. — "It flows into both." 
'^Part flows into each." 

Teacher. — "Why does not all the water flow into 
one valley?" 

Piqyils. — "Because it can't flow up hill." 

"It must flow clown the slope." 

"The land is too high between the valleys." 

The teacher now points to many parts of the map, 
and asks to which valley each part belongs. The 
pupils answer readily until the finger rests upon the 
divide, and the class is in doubt. 

Teaeher. — "Can you find other places like this?" 
Eager fingers then trace the divide between the 
valleys. 

Teacher. — " To which valley does this line be- 
long?" 

Fupils. — "It doesn't belong to either." 
"It belongs to both." 
"It is just between the valleys." 
"Both valleys begin at this line." 

Teacher. — "On which slope is this line?" 
Fupils. — "It comes between the slopes." 



16 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

''It is on both slopes." 

''The slopes meet at this line." 

Teacher. — "We will call this line a divide. Can 
you tell why?'' 

Pi(2jils. — '^Because it divides the land into two 
valleys." 

"Because it divides the slopes." 

"It turns the rain in two directions." 

Teacher. — "Open your geographies at page 9. 
Point to a high divide that has snow upon . it. 
Point to one on low hills. Can you find one on 
land that is nearly level?" 

Notes on the Lesson. — It had been carefully 
prepared. The teacher had a definite aim. The 
questions were direct and simple. The thinking 
was done by the pupils. Each question was an- 
swered in several ways, showing that pupils were 
allowed time for thought. 



20. How Slopes Are Worn. 

Aim. To lead pupils to think of the wasting 
away of land masses. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 17 

Hints. Use any piece of wood that has begun 
to decay. 

Nearly every pebble taken out of the soil shows 
decay. A shell of soft stone surrounds the hard 
nucleus. The outer part has begun to decay. 

Pupils can find many pieces of rock in all stages 
of decay. 

Look at the ground under the eaves of buildings, 
and see how the rain has worked. 

The "rocky cliff" on page 17 has been cracked 
and crumbled by frost. 

The canon of the Colorado, page 38, and the gorge 
of Niagara, page 39, were made by running water. 

21. Beds of Streams. 

Aim. To show how streams wear their beds. 

Hints. The Shoshone river has cut" this bed in 
layers of lava. The cliff beyond the falls is made 
of lava an 1 ashes. 

This ice jam is in the Mississippi. The mud, sand 
and stones held by ice are left in the places where 
the ice melts. 

The portion of Niagara river that is above the 
falls flows on hard limestone. Under this, there is a 



18 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

thick bed of soft stone (shale). The falling water 
easily wears out this shale, leaving the limestone 
overhanging the gorge. From time to time the 
limestone breaks off and falls into the gorge. The 
picture on page 39 shows pieces of fallen rock. 

In the little cut of Minnehaha, pupils can see 
layers of rock back of the falls. 

Stones in a river bed are rounded by being rubbed 
together. After a long time these stones will be 
ground to sand and mud. The rivers carry part of 
this rocky matter wherever they flow. 

22. Valleys. 

Aim. To show types of valley forms. 

Hints. Do not forget that the district should be 
studied. 

See pictures of valleys on pages 45 and 49. That 
on page 49 is a fine example of a transverse valley. 
It crosses a range. 

One of the pictures on page 11 shows the Hayden 
valley, in Yellowstone Park. This will serve to 
illustrate a wide valley. 

The canon of the Colorado shows the cutting of a 
river in a dry region. The banks are steep, because 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 19 

there was not enough rain to wear them very far back 
while the river gouged its bed. 

In the primary course it does not seem best to 
enter very far into the causes of shapes, but merely 
to show a variety. 

Pupils can bring to school many pictures of val- 
leys. 

Rain, streams and moist air cause the sides of 
valleys to waste away. The glacier melts as it 
reaches lower levels. See glaciers on pages 7 and 
72. 

The sand table will aid greatly in the study of 
valleys. Give several lessons on valleys. 

23. Mountains. 

Aim. To teach types of mountains. 

Hints. The Cascade peak is made of tilted and 
folded rocks. Page 14 shows the Ehine valley, 
"long and deep," in a plateau. The Temples of the 
Virgin are merely fragments of a plateau. The 
sharp points standing near the "mesa" were once a 
part of the mesa or plateau. 

Pico volcano shows clearly the cooled lava. The 
word from which crater is derived means a "dish for 



20 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

mixing" — a very apt name. It would interest pupils 
to tell them a story about Vulcan, the god of fire. 
See any good book of myths. The eruption of Vesu- 
vius, burying Pompeii, forms a basis for a good 
story. 

Pupils should see types of the low, rounded ranges, 
such as the Jura and Alleghany, as well as types of 
rocky ranges. Mt. Mitchell is a typical dome, and the 
range pictured above it may be taken as a type of 
low, rounded mountains. The flowers that show in. 
the picture of Mt. Mitchell are the royal rhododen- 
dron — the glory of the southern mountains. In 
places these flowers cover hundreds of acres. 

See crests on pages 32, 35 and 45. 

The soil on steep slopes is generally poor, because 
the finest part of it is washed away by rain. 

Study the pictures on page 13. Give several les- 
sons on mountains. 

24. Plains. 

Aim. To show some of the ways in which plains 
are formed. 

Hints. This Dakota grainfield is part of a vast 
plain that was at one time the bed of a lake. It is 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 21 

thought that on the north this lake was shut in by a 
mass of ice, near the close of the ice age. 

In the state of Idaho alone there are about 12,00.0 
square miles of lava plain, like that in the picture. 
The Shoshone falls, page 10, are in this lava region. 
The flow of lava must have come through long fis- 
sures or cracks. 

The Ehine flood plain is made of soil brought down 
by the river. There are thousands of square miles 
of flood plain along the Mississippi and its branches. 

See plains on pages 39, 82 and 92. The Colorado 
river, page 38, flows through a plateau. 

Show pupils how low plains and plateaus are pic- 
tured on maps, pages 32 and 42. 

Give several lessons on plains. 

25. Shore Forms. 

Aim. To compare the outlines of shore forms. 

Hints. Collect many pictures of shore forms. 
These should show islands, capes, bays, etc., of many 
shapes and sizes. Have pupils draw some of these 
shapes. 

As each form is taught, show one or more like it 
on the map, page viii, opposite page 1. 



22 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

Make one entire lesson on islands, another on 
peninsulas, etc. 

It would be mere waste of time to search for 
differences between bays and gulfs or seas. Glance 
at the map, page 24, showing the bay of Bengal, the 
gulf of Guinea and the Arabian sea. Why should 
one be called a gulf and another a bay or a sea? 

Pupils can doubtless bring many excellent pictures. 

26. Work of Water on Shores. 

Aim. To show how coastlines are shaped by water. 

Hints. Gravel consists of small pebbles, and is 
often mixed with sand. 

The stones on the shore near the clay cliff came 
from the cliff. Water washes the clay from under 
the stones and they fall. 

The loose earth at the foot of the rocky cliff will 
in time be swept away by waves and tides. 

The caves in the middle cliff' were made by waves. 
Seaweed protects shores from the action of waves 
and rolling stones. A coat of seaweed helps to 
prevent frost from cracking the rocks. 

The picture marked ''Dunes" shows how sand has 
been drifted by winds. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 23 

The Stones of Stennis are ruins of an old Druid 
temple in Scotland. The shore around these stones 
is low and grassy. Grass prevents sand from 
drifting. 

Deep water is needed in harbors, in order to float 
large ships. High shores help to shut out strong 
winds. 

As a rule the best harbors are on rocky coasts. 
Harbors on sandy coasts are apt to be shallow and 
easily swept by gales. 

Spend three or four days on this lesson. 

27. Points of the Compass. 

Aim. To teach directions. 

Hints. Pupils can readily be led to discover that 
the sun does not always rise in the same place, but 
that it rises in or near the east. The sun is in the 
south at midday, and at that time casts the shortest 
shadows. Make the definite midday shadow the 
starting point for teaching directions. 

Can pupils discover the difference in time between 
true midday and the noon of railroad time ? 

Pupils should become familiar with the directions 
indicated by letters around the compass on i^age 18. 



24 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

28. How Maps Are Made. 

Aim. To show pupils liow to draw to a scale. 

Bints. No teacher will make the mistake of 
having pupils copy the plans shown in this lesson. 
These plans are intended to show pupils what parts 
of their own schoolroom, house, yard and district 
they should draw. 

29. Reading Maps. 

Aim. To show pupils how to read the outline 
maps in their geographies. 

Hints. A series of maps leading out from the 
pupils' own school district would prove more helpful 
than this series. 

The class can make original maps of the parts of 
the district with which they are familiar. 

Be sure that the pupils know what the lines on the 
maps represent. Each sign on a map is like a word 
in a sentence. There must be ideas behind the signs 
or there can be no thought. Map signs, like words, 
are of no use unless they help to relate ideas. 

On page 101 there is a picture of a New York 
Avater front. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 25 



30. Form and Size of the Earth. 

Aim. To give some idea of tlie form and great 
size of the earth. 

Hints. '-If an ant were placed on a large balloon, 
do you think that to the tiny creature the balloon 
would look round?" This question may awaken 
thought on the part of pupils. 

Cut a very small round hole in a piece of cardboard 
and place it against a globe so that a small part of 
the surface of the globe will appear in the hole. This 
part will look level. 

A common illustration is that of a train going 
25,000 miles. Such a trip would take more than 
a month. 

The rings on the moon are thought to be craters. 



31. What a Hill is Made of. 

Aim. To direct the thought to what is beneath 
the surface of the earth. 

Hints. Tell pupils that rocks are sometimes 
covered with clay, sand or water, as well as with 
gravel. 



26 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

The water in the picture flows upon rock. Streams 
flow also, of course, upon clay, gravel or fine soil. 

By shaking pieces of sharp rock in a bottle, pupils 
have found that sand consists of little grains of 
rock. 

If there is no clay in the school district, omit the 
question, "What is clay?" Pupils are not expected 
to tell the composition of clay, but merely to tell 
some of its properties : when wet, it is sticky ; when 
molded or pressed, it readily retains its shape ; when 
baked, it becomes very hard. 

The answers of pupils to the questions will be 
very simple. 



32. What the Earth is Made of. 

Awi. To teach what the earth is made of. 

Hints. On page 29 there are four maps of the 
earth. On these globes the mountains are greatly 
exaggerated, in order that the slopes from them may 
be plainly seen. 

It is not known whether the interior of the earth 
is in a liquid or in a solid state. The ball of rock 
may be solid to the center. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 



33. The Air. 



Ai77i. To make pupils conscious of the presence of 
air all about them. 

Hints. It is the air, of course, that offers resist- 
ance to the falling paper. 

Pure air cannot be seen, at least in small quan- 
tities. The blue color of a clear sky is largely due 
to the presence of dust motes. 

We can feel air when in motion. 

34. The Shell of Air. 

Aim. To direct the thought to the earth in its 
shell of air. 

Hints. In how many ways can pupils prove that 
there is air about them ? Let pupils discuss these 
questions : "Is the air of greater use when calm or 
when in motion? " "When warm or when cold? " 

35. The Poles. 

Ami. To teach directions on the globe. 

Mints. Guard against the thought that there is a 
line drawn through the earth or that there are pegs 
at the poles. 



28 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

Try tossing a ball into the air and discovering the 
direction in Avhich its axis points. 

Pupils will be greatly interested in meeting .he 
teacher some evening to look for the pointers and 
the north star. 

It does not seem necessary to direct the attention 
of pupils to the fact that the north star is not exactly 
in line with the earth's axis. 

Impress upon pupils that north is toward the north 
pole. When they can tell the directions in which all 
the arrows on page 23 are flying, there will be no 
difficulty in reading directions on all the maps in the 
geography. 

36. The Equator. 

Aim. Same as in Lesson 35. 

Hints. Find the equator on each of the maps on 
page 23. Give thorough drill in reading the direc- 
tions in which the arrows on the maps fly. 

Hold a ball in the sun, and see what part is 
lighted by the direct rays. 

At the close of this lesson turn to the colored 
maps on pages 105 to 115, and find on them north, 
south, east and west. 

E-eview often the work outlined on page 23. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 29 



37. The World Ridge. 

jiluv To teach the simple unity in the world's 
great highlands. 

Hints. A. small globe in the hands of each pupil 
would prove of great value. There should be at 
least one globe in the schoolroom. 

Opposite each large relief map there is a small key 
map, giving names that occur in the text. Other 
names can be found on the colored maps, pages 105 
to 115. Show the pupils how to use the key maps. 

Train jpiipils to read maps. What' can they read 
from the map on page 24 ? They can find the north 
pole and the equator (see page 23) ; they can tell 
which lines run north, south, east or west; they can 
point to the land and to the sea ; they can find the 
great plains and the plateaus ; they can show 
where the highest divides run, 'and where the 
great streams flow. Give the pupils a chance, and 
they may surprise the teacher with their skill in 
reading maps. 

For explanation of the parts of this map that 
project beyond the circle, see note on page viii. 

By turning the book to right and left, it will be 
seen that each grand division is but slightly dis- 



30 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

torted. This is, doubtless, tlie most accurate projec- 
tion for making a map of the land areas. 

We may speak of the north pole as being not far 
from the middle of the world rids^e. 



38. Andes Highland. 

From this time on do not let the pupils lose sight 
of the unity of the globe relief. As each new form 
is studied, show its place on the map on page 24, or 
on page viii. 

On page 31 there is a picture of a condor in the 
Andes. See map on page 32, also. 

This lesson brings us to the first of a series of 
short stories. These are to help fix in mind the 
leading facts of the lessons. The stories are to be 
read, but need not be closely studied. 

39. Rocky Mountain Highland. 

Look for this highland on the relief map of the 
globe, page 24. 

Pupils can easily see that the Andes highland is 
higher but narrower than the Rocky Mountain high- 
land. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 31 

There are pictures of parts of the Eocky moun- 
tains on pages 12 and 35. See map on page 36. 

40. Highland of Tibet. 

See picture on page 41, and map on page 42. 
The longest plains of Asia are north of Tibet. 

41. Highland of Abyssinia. 

From Asia the world range extends into Africa. 
A spur from this great ridge enters Europe, but no 
part of the divide between, the great ocean basins 
enters that grand division. 

The two ends of the world ridge are at Cape Horn 
and Grood Hope. 

See map on page 50. 

42. Slopes from the World Ridge. 

The Atlantic slopes are on the inner side of the 
world ridge. The Pacific slopes are on the outer 
side. 

Have pupils show on the map, page 24, the long 
and short slopes from each of the four great high- 
lands in the world ridge. 



32 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 



43. Selvas. 

On page 33 there is a scene in the selvas. 

The picture on page 27 shows natives without 
clothing. Prom this picture pupils can readily judge 
that the air of the selvas is warm. 

Skill in reading pictures is of far greater value than 
mere memory of the text. 

44. Western Plains. 

There is a picture of a grainfield on page 82, and 
of a cotton field on page 92. 

The prairies are plains, but they do not form part 
of the Western plains. 

See map on i^age 36. 

45. Tundras. 

On page 41 there is a scene on the tundras. 

The animals on page 43 live in great forests that 
grow on the plains north of Tibet. 

The word tundras appears on the key map, page 
25, and also on page 43. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 33 



46. Desert of Sahara. 

On pages 49, 52 and 112 there are pictures of parts 
of the Sahara. 

Some parts of this desert are covered with rocks, 
and other parts with parched soiL 

See map on page 50. 



47. The G-rand Divisions. 

The names used in tliis lesson appear on the maps 
of the hemispheres, page 28. Have pupils show the 
grand divisions on the little globes pictured on pages 
28 and 29. 

See, also, map on page 24. 



48. The Oceans. 

Follow the suggestions given under Lesson 47. 

Page 78 shows a junk on the Pacific. On page 64 
there is an Arctic scene. There is an Atlantic steam- 
ship on page 100. 

The Pacific is the largest ocean. The Atlantic is 
next in size. 



34 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

49. The Bottom of the Sea. 

Lead pupils to think of a coastline as the line 
where the land slopes under the sea. This line 
shows how far water rises on the slopes of the 
grand divisions. 

The land is being constantly Avorn by streams and 
waves, while the sea is ever spreading material evenly 
over its bottom. The work on the land consists 
largely of tearing down. The work in the deep sea 
is that of building. Thus we see why the bottom of 
the sea is not cut and gullied like the surface of the 
land. 

Bring out the thought that the characteristic 
appearance of the sea bottom is that of a vast 
smooth plain. There are broad plateaus under the 
sea, but they have not the appearance of land pla- 
teaus that have been Avorn by rain. 

Dwell upon the darkness of the deep sea and its 
coldness. Look for pictures of fish peculiar to deep 
sea. 

The shores of the grand divisions are the feeding 
grounds of many of the best food fishes. ^Vaves 
churn and help to grind sea plants, and thus prepare 
food for fish. 



HES^TS TO TEACHERS. 35 

50. Coral Islands. 

Encourage pupils to collect specimens of coral. 
Look for pictures of other coral islands. 

On pages 80 and 81 tliere are pictures and descrip- 
tions of breadfruit, cocoanut and banana. These are 
the chief food plants on many coral islands. 

This lesson illustrates the grinding power of waves. 
It also shows what becomes of part of the land waste. 

51. Surface of South America. 

Many teachers may prefer to place lesson 52 
before 51. 

Eefer constantly to the map on page 24. 

Lesson 3S states that the Andes highland reaches 
one fifth of the distance round the earth. 

The lofty plateau near the bend in the Pacific 
coast is that of Bolivia. Notice that the lake is two 
miles and a half above sea level. The border ranges 
rise much higher. 

Study the picture above this lesson. 

On page 120 there is a map that will serve as a 
guide for modeling and drawing. Many teachers 
prefer not to have pupils model the grand divisions 



36 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

in the primary course. Pupils can readily learn to 
sketch these maps. Large maps modeled in sand by 
teachers are of great assistance. 

52. Map Studies. 

This lesson is one of a series of map studies. See 
also lessons 58, 68, 74, 80 and 85. These questions 
are so graded that when pupils reach lesson 85 they 
should know how to read a map without assistance. 

Teachers should not lose sight of this growing 
'pou-er to read majjs, for it is worth much to pupils. 
It is earnestly hoped that teachers will study the 
grading of map questions in the lessons cited above. 

Pupils will readily answer that the middle part of 
the Andes highland looks widest and highest. 

On the west slope of the Andes there are no long 
rivers because the slope is steep and short. 

Train pupils to use the key maps. 

The picture of the globe on page 33 is one of a 
series intended to keep comparatice sizes and relative 
positions before the eyes of the pupils. These globes 
show the relative positions of both land and water 
areas. Ask questions leading pupils to study the 
globes. In addition to South America the globe on 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 37 

page 33 shows parts of three other grand divisions 
and of four oceans. These furnish a " setting " for 
South America. 



53. Amazon River. 

The pictures on page 84 show some of the animals 
of tlie Amazon valley. 

The lily in the picture on page 33 is the Victoria 
regla. The stork is standing on a lily leaf. Note 
how the edges of the leaf are turned up. 

What can pupils find in this picture ? 

It is said tliat the word Amazon comes from a 
native word, meaning boat destroyer, and refers to the 
great wave or bore that sometimes rushes up the 
river from the sea. 



54. Highland of Brazil. 

Use the maps on pages 24 and 32. 

A great deal of Brazilian coffee goes under other 
foreign names. More than three fourths of the coffee 
used in this country is raised in Brazil. Compara.- 
tively little comes to the United States from Java. 



38 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

This story teaches that the climate of Brazil is 
warm and moist. 

Notice the blossoms and berries together on a sprig 
of coffee. This growth is characteristic of the coffee 
tree. 

55. Pampas. 

The general slope of the La Plata basin is towards 
the south. 

Custom sanctions the expression, " the La Plata," 
although la means the. Rio de la Plata means 7'wer 
of silver. 

The basin of the Amazon is about twice as large 
as that of the La Plata. See tables of statistics, 
page 119. A part of the highland of Brazil divides 
these basins. 



56. Isthmus of Panama. 

The straw huts in the picture belong to the poorer 
class of people. These people dress mainly in cotton 
cloth. 

Many donke3'S or burros are used on the Isthmus. 
On page 37 there is a picture of one of these small 
animals. 



HINTS TO TEACHEKS. 39 



57. Surface of North America. 

Use the maps on pages 24 and 36. 

The ranges rise much more than a mile and a half 
above sea level. 

Help the pupils locate the pictures of this group. 

jS'antasket is near Boston; Ottertail range is part 
of the Eocky mountains in Canada, not far from the 
United States border. 

These bison are a remnant of the vast herds that 
once roamed over the Western plains. The picture 
shows a small herd now kept in a park in Manitoba, 
Canada. 

58. Map Studies. 

Notice that these map questions do not help pupils 
so much as those under South America. 

Pupils can show on the map, page 24, what part of 
the world ridge is in North America. 

It will be interesting to note what the relief map 
tells your pupils. Will they see that the great 
highland is on the west side ; that there is a small 
hicrhland alona; the Atlantic coast ; that between 
these highlands stretches a vast plain ; that the 



40 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

coastline is more broken on the nortli and east than 
on the west ; that the longest rivers are east of the 
great highland ? Teachers may need to ask a few 
gniding questions, but let pupils do all they can 
without such help. 

The little globe on page 37 shows the position of 
North America relative to four other grand divisions 
and three oceans. Lead pupils to see these relations. 

Compare the two globes on pages 33 and 37, and 
tell which is the larger, South America or North 
America. See tables of statistics on page 118. 

These Mexican children live in straAV huts, and 
dress in cotton cloth. Their dress shows that the 
air is warm. 

See model map on page 121. 

59. The Rocky Mountains. 

The aim of this story is to lead pupils to think of 
steep and rugged slopes among the Rocky mountains, 
and of the difficulties of travel in this region. 

• The donkey, with his load, will form a good 
subject for a language lesson. 

Pikes Peak is not far from the city of Denver. 
See map, page 105. 



HIXTS TO TEACHERS. 41 



60. Colorado Canon. 

The answers to the questions can be found on the 
key map, page 37. 

The "Canon in Arizona" is a characteristic picture 
of the reo'ion south of the Colorado river. 



61. The Height of Land. 

The word Height may convey a wrong impression 
to pupils. The grainfield on page 14 is near this 
Height, and many fields like this are on the Height 
of Land. 

The Welland canal joins Lake Erie with Lake 
Ontario. The change in level between these lakes is 
about 300 feet. 



62. The Mississippi Basin. 

The Mississippi basin is roughly bounded as follows : 
On the west by the Eocky mountains, on the north by 
the Height of Land and a low swell that runs south 
of the Great Lakes, and on the east by the Appa- 
lachian highland. 



42 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 



63. North of the Height of Land. 

In this primary course it does not seem desirable 
to spend mncli time studying the region north of the 
Height of Land. 

In lessons 64, 65 and 66, refer to the relief map on 
page 36. 

67. Surface of Asia. 

See tables of statistics on page 118. 

Eefer to the map on pages 24 and 42. 

Study the picture on page 41. Mt. Dunkia is in 
the Himalayas north of Calcutta. This peak is about 
four miles and a half in height. 

The natives in the picture of the tundras are 
Samoyedes. They belong to the yellow race. 



68. Map Studies. 

Study the maps on pages 24 and 43. 
The longest slope is north of Tibet. 
For directio7is, refer to maps on page 23. 
What grand divisions appear on the little globe on 
page 43 ? 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 43 

The model map of Asia is on page 122. 

In lessons 69^ 70, 71 and 72 refer often to the 
relief map. 

73. Surface of Europe. 

Use the map on page 24. 

On page 13 there are two views of the Alps — Mt. 
Blanc and the peaks near Les Pres, France. Mt. 
Blanc is in France. 

The highest peak in Europe is Elbruz, in the Cau- 
casus range. 

Study the pictures on page 45. The Ehine view 
shows the famous vineyards opposite Bingen. At 
the top of the bluff, or palisade, may be seen the 
great Germania monument. 

This is the Yiescli glacier. The medial moraine 
is very clearly shown. 



74. Map Studies. 

Are pupils learning to read maps? Ask guiding 
questions, if necessary. 

Europe is on the inner side of the world ridge. 



44 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

What grand divisions and oceans are shown on the 
globe, page 47 ? Compare the area of Enrope with 
that of each of tlie other grand divisions studied. 
See little globes. 

The model map of Europe is on page 123. 

Do not forget to refer to maps in lessons 75, 76, 77 
and 78. 

79. Surface of Africa. 

Study the pictures. 

The Nile view shows the landing place at Assouan ; 
see map, page 113. Several caravan routes lead to 
this place, because there are no cataracts in the river 
below. 

The scene in the Atlas mountains shows a Moorish 
town, and a fine example of transverse valley. 

80. Map Studies. 

Do not neglect the world ridge map, page 24. 

Can pupils read the relief map of Africa without 
assistance ? 

Have pupils learned how to read the little globes ? 
What can they read on the globe, page 51 ? 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 45 

The Suez canal has no locks. This great ditch is 
about one hundred miles in length. 

The model map of Africa is on page 124. 

Study the pictures in lessons 81, 82 and 83. 



84. Surface of Australia. 

The position of Australia, relative to the world 
ridge, is shown on the key map, page 25. See also 
map on page 73. This grand division is on the outer 
side of the great ridge. 

New Zealand is shown on the map, page 115. Find 
the Blue mountains, also, on this map. 

The tree ferns in the picture give a hint of the 
great ferns of the coal period. 

These hot springs of New Zealand are known as 
the "white terraces." 



85. Map Studies. 

Read the relief map of Australia, and then read 
the little globe on page 54. 

The model map of Australia is on page 125. 



46 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

Lessons 86 to 94. 

The aim of these lessons is to interest pupils in 
the study of the races, and to give some knowledge 
of the home life of people in other lands. 

The stories deal with race characteristics. Inci- 
dentally, they introduce facts concerning the climate, 
plants and animals of these lands. 

The pictures should be studied very carefully. At 
the end of each lesson a few questions are asked. 
They are answered in the text or in the pictures. 

The last question under lesson 90 aims to bring 
out the thought that the clothing of each race is best 
suited to the climate and habits of that particular 
race. 

Locate on the map, page 73, the scene of each 
lesson. 

95. Homes of the Races. 

Study the natural boundaries of races in the Old 
World. Note that high chains of mountains sepa- 
rate the yellow and white races in Asia. Nearly all 
Europe belongs to the white race. Eoughly speak- 
ing, the desert of Sahara divides the lands of the 
white and the black races in Africa. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 47 

The Malays are cliieiiy an island people. 

The Eskimos are classed with the yellow race. 
People of the black race are scattered along the warm 
coasts of America. About one tenth of the people in 
the United States are Xegroes. 

There are only about 250,000 Indians in the United 
States, but the number of people of this race in 
Mexico, Central America and South America runs 
far into millions. 



96. Homes of the Nations. 

A nation is a large family. 

Try to name a country that is not wholly or in part 
bounded by natural features. 

With slight changes the story in this lesson would 
apply equally well to the Indians of America, to the 
Kegroes in Africa, or to any other race 



97. Map Studies. 

These map studies are placed here for the conven- 
ience of teachers that wish to include in this part of 
the course tlie study of location of countries. 



48 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

Some teachers will select from the questions those 
that call for the location of leading countries only. 
Such a list would, doubtless, include those named on 
page vii of the Table of Contents. 

Many teachers will doubtless omit this entire 
lesson. 



98. Home Lesson for a Hot Day. 

In some places teachers can take their pupils out 
into the fields to study this lesson. 

Encourage as many as possible to try the experi- 
ments. 



99. How the Air is Heated. 

Pupils that try the experiments named in lesson 
98 will learn most from lesson 99. 

It is thought that the sun's rays pass through pure 
air without heating it. 

The leading thought of this lesson is this : The 
sun's rays do not heat the air directly, but the 
surface of the earth changes sun's rays to heat, and 
gives the heat to the air. Clouds and dust help to 
perform the same work. 



HIXTS TO TEACHERS. 49 

ISToTE. — Scientists are at present inclined to be- 
lieve that the old theories concerning "' heat rays '' 
and " light rays " are wrong, and that heat and light 
depend not on different kinds of rays, but on the 
nature of the bodies which absorb the rays. Of 
course, this question will not arise in this lesson. 

100. How the Earth is Heated. 

Pupils should be led to observe the varying path 
of the sun. Such work would prove of far greater 
value to them than would any text that could be 
written. 

Take for a problem the question: At irhat time of 
year does the sun shine the shortest distance into a 
room at midday? 

If your schoolroom has no south window, try the 
experiment regularly at any hour of the day when the 
sun enters an east or a west window. 

Once a week at the appointed hour mark on the 
floor the inner edge of the sunlight. This may be 
done by driving small tacks into the floor. 

Suppose that the record is begun in early autumn. 
Week after week pupils can discover that the sun 
runs lower and lower, for its light reaches farther 



50 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

into the room. At length, in the latter part of 
December, it remains the same for a few cla3'S. Then 
the path of light becomes shorter, and we know that 
the sun is rising higher and higher in the sky. In 
June the sunlight reaches the same point for several 
days, and then the shadows of objects begin to 
lengthen. 

The answer to our question is : The latter part of 
June. This answer is of very little consequence, 
unless pupils have been led to observe the changes 
taking place in nature, during the passing seasons. 
They can discover that the path of the sun deter- 
mines each season, and this fact is the key to the 
study of how the earth is heated. 

Mark the shadows and study the seasons, and 
pupils Avill easily comprehend the lessons on belts 
of heat. 

Lessons 101, 102, 103 and 104 need occupy but 
little time. Most teachers will doubtless prefer not 
to try to explain in this primary course the rela- 
tion of the earth's revolution on a fixed axis to the 
changes of season. It would seem better to leave 
that philosophy for the more mature minds to grapple. 
Keep the work very simple. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 51 

105. Belts of Heat. 

For the convenience of teachers that wish to 
include in this course the study of the zones of 
light, a lesson has been added on page 125. 

The map on page 24 shows what river basins are 
crossed by the equator. 

The rivers that flow into the Arctic ocean are 
tliose that drain most of the northern parts of Asia, 
Europe and Korth America. Pupils do not yet know 
the names of these rivers. 

Pupils need not study the exact bounds of the 
heat belts. It will be sufficient if they learn which 
of the large river basins are wholly or in part in the 
various belts. The questions in the lesson will serve 
to direct this study. 

In the larger book of this series the lines of heat 
will be studied. The aim of this lesson is to prepare 
the way for the study of plant belts. 

106. The Trade Winds. 

Within a few years many of the theories relating 
to causes of winds have been set aside. Ferrel's 
work has placed this study on a new footing. 



52 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

Pupils can easily be led to discover the principle 
of motion resulting from difference in pressure or 
"weight/' but the application of this principle and 
of Ferrel's theory of the effect of the earth's rotation 
seems to be far beyond the grasp of primary pupils. 
The difficulty will be evident to teachers that are 
familiar with Davis' Elementarij Meteorology or witli 
Ferrel's Fopular Treatise on the Winds. 

It may not be amiss to caution teachers not to 
overlook the fact that the polar regions are areas of 
low pressure^, and that the tropics of Cancer and 
Capricorn are in or near belts of ver}^ high pres- 
sure. 

Lesson 106, in Primary Geograj)hy, gives a simple 
outline of the more important winds, and most 
teachers will doubtless be content not to press the 
subject farther, in the primary grades. 

107. The Gulf Stream. 

The causes of ocean currents and their general 
plan of circulation are clearly not within the scope 
of this book. It has been thought best, however, 
to treat of two great currents, because of their influ- 
ence upon the climate of important countries. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 53 

Find on the maj)S all places mentioned in this 
lesson. Lesson 72 describes bamboo. Many fishing 
rods are made of this plant. 

108. Where Plants Grow. 

The tafts on thistle seeds enable the wind to 
scatter them about. 

Seeds that float may be carried to other places by 
streams or by the sea. 

Teachers will need to modify the questions in this 
lesson to suit the locality. Ask many questions 
concerning plants that grow near the schoolhouse. 

109. Soil, Watsr and Heat. 

The experiments suggested under lesson 8 will 
throw light on this lesson. The aim is to direct the 
thought to the relation of plants to soil, water and 
heat. This will help pupils to understand the distri- 
bution of plants in belts and regions. 

110. Plants of the Hot Belt. 

Study the pictures under this lesson. See also the 
Hot Belt on page 81, and the pictures on pages 23, 
33 and 34. 



54 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

How many kinds of spice can the pupils bring for 
a school cabinet ? 

111. Plants of the Warm Belts. 

See the pictures on pages 40, 44 and 92. 
Interesting language lessons may be given on tlie 
products of these belts. 

Eefer often to map on page 77. 

112. Plants of the Cool Belts. 

Find on the map, page 77, the cool belt of the 
south. A glance will show that it is scarcely worth 
notice. 

See pictures on pages 39, 81, 93, 94 and 95. 

Eefer to map on page 77. 

113. Plants of the Cold Belt. 

The cold belt of the south calls for but slight 
notice. 

See pictures on pages 63, 64 and 81. 

For the food of the reindeer, see page 62. 

The questions in lesson 114 may supply topics for 
language lessons. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 55 

115. Animals. — Their Teeth, Etc. 

The aim of this lesson is to show how animals are 
fitted to their habitats or native hannts. Study a 
few of the common animals and discover their 
peculiarities. N'ote their habits, and discover the 
relation of their structure to these habits. 

The pictures on page 83 may suggest a line of study. 

116. Animals and Their Homes. 

The text of this lesson touches upon the structure 
of animals, their means of defense, and barriers to 
their dispersal. 

Pupils can doubtless give many other illustrations 
of each of these topics. The pictures on pages 84 
and 85 will suggest many interesting stories along 
the line of the lesson. 

117. Animals of the Heat Belts. 

In this primary book the animals are not grouped 
in regions marked out by physical features. The 
fauna! regions are studied in the larger book of the 
series. 



56 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

Lesson 117 aims at showing the distribntion of 
a few of the largest and most familiar animals. 
Notice the coastlines in the picture. 

Lesson 118 supplies topics for language lessons. 

119. Surface of the United States. 

Eeview thoroughly the surface of the United 
States. See relief map on page 36. 

A large part of Alaska is in the cold belt. This 
accounts for the word '' mainly " in the sentence : 
" The northern part (of the United States) is mainly 
in the cool belt." 

120. People. 

This map is based on the census of 1890. 
Most of the Indian tribes live in Mexico, Central 
America and South America. 

121. July 4, 1776. 

In connection with this lesson it would be well to 
rea,d several short stories of the Revolution and the 
causes leading to that struggle. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 57 

In lessons 122 and 123 particular attention should 
be paid to the pronunciation of names. If pupils 
are to use this word list, they should first receive 
thorough drill in pronouncing the key words at the 
bottom of the page. Most teachers will doubtless 
pronounce the geographical names- for the pupils. 

The spelling of new names should be taught at 
once by ivriting them. 

Lessons 124 to 131. 

These lessons treat of the leading industries of 
the nation. The maps are based on government 
reports. 

The darkest tint on each map shows the region of 
greatest production. The aim should be to fix in 
mind the regions whose products affect commerce. 

Refer often to the relief map on page 36. 

Collect pictures that illustrate these great indus- 
tries. In this work pictures are of far greater value 
than any text that can be written. 

Ask pupils to bring specimens of products, and 
use these in giving the lessons. 

These lessons need constant reviews, in order to fix 
in mind the leading facts. 



58 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

132. Routes of Trade. 

Study tlie pictures. The steamship plies between 
New York and LiverpooL This freight train is 
crossing the E,ocky Mountain highland. See the 
snow beside the tracks. 

The canal boats are in the Erie canal. The caravan 
has brought merchandise to a shipping point on the 
river. 

Some teachers may think best to teach a few of 
the trunk lines of railroad across the United States. 



Lessons 133 to 139. 

Thorough study should be made of the great 
commercial centers of the United States. Look for 
pictures that illustrate these cities. 

Search for the causes of each city's growth. This 
work will call for constant reference to the series of 
production maps on pages 92 to 99. 

Locate each city on the map, pages 90 and 91. 

In this primary course it may be well to omit the 
list of cities named in the second column of page 
103, or at least those below Minneapolis. 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 59 



Lessons 140 to 155. 

These lessons aim to present the industrial and 
commercial life of the leading countries of each 
grand division. These are the countries that bear 
the closest relation to the United States. 

It is thought that this plan will result in the best 
preparation for the study of the larger book, and 
will at the same time be of greatest value to pupils 
that are obliged to leave school without completing 
the full course. 

Train pupils to read these political maps. 



Local Geography. 

There are several editions of the Primary Geog- 
raphy, and each presents the special geography of a 
group of states. 

All pupils should study the general text, page 129, 
relating to the entire group of states, and the text in 
large type under their own state. The matter in 
small type need not receive close study. In fact it 
may be used merely for reference. 



60 HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

Most teachers will doubtless omit the study of 
neighboring states, or postpone sucli study till pupils 
reach the larger book of tlie series. 8ucli a plan 
certainly has much to commend it, for the detailed 
study of all the states in the group would doubt- 
less x^rove a wearisome and comparatively fruitless 
task. 



The Best Text-Books. — Continued. 
Writing. 

GINN AND COMPANY'S WRITING BOOKS. 

The means of acquiring a neat, legible hand, and writing with ease 
and rapidity. 

Spelling. 

GRAVES'S NEW GRADED SPELLING BOOK. 

A thoroughly practical spelling book, devoted wholly to its proper 
work. 

STICKNEY'S WORD BY WORD. 

An improved course in spelling, full of ingenious and original 
devices and at the same time sensible and thoroughly usable. 

HAZEN'S COMPLETE SPELLER. 

Spelling taught on a rational plan by the aid of intelligence a, 
well as memory. 

GIHN AND COMPANY'S SPELLING BLANKS. 

History. 

MONTGOMERY'S AMERICAN HISTORY. 

A vivid panorama of the great activities of American life. 

MONTGOMERY'S BEGINNER'S AMERICAN HISTORY. 

The history of the nation told in the biographies of its foundeiiife 
and builders. 

Music. 

THE NATIONAL MUSIC COURSE. 

The best method, the best music, the best literature. 

TILDEN'S COMMON SCHOOL SONG READER AND CHART. 

The principles of scientific musical instruction adapted to uf ; 
graded schools. 



The Best Text= Books. — Concluded. 
geography. 

FRYE'S GEOGi ..aES. 

The only .lies embodying the ideas and methods of progressive 
teachers. 

HALL'S OUR WORLD READER, NO. I. 

Simple in style, clear in outline, vivid in description. 

Physiology. 

BLAISDELL'S PHYSIOLOGIES. 

True, scientific, interesting and teachable. 

LINCOLN'S HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY. 

This book makes instruction in hygiene a main feature. 

Civil Government. 

MACY'S OUR GOVERNMENT. 

The grand distinction of this is that it covers the whole ground. 

MACY'S FIRST BOOK IN CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

The only book that carries the study into the lower grades. 

Book-Keeping. 

GAY'S BUSINESS BOOK-KEEPING. 

A concise, teachable manual of the modern methods. 



Send for our Common School Catalogue, 
Descriptive Circulars, and Introductory Terms. 



Boston, Nexv "Yorlc, and Clriiceigo, 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ^ 





